CD is the length of the call and DF is the frequency with the most energy Fig. We evaluated two types of behavioural context within three minutes before and after a calling bout occurred: group association and foraging. The three minutes of observation time was selected based on the average diving duration Foraging behaviour was investigated by analysing five variables calculated from the accelerometer and video data: dive duration, maximum dive depth, average dive depth, dive type, and prey capture rate.
We compared the variables before and after consecutive vocal activities between diving events. Using the depth data, we calculated dive duration as the time elapsed between adjacent surface events for details, see Lee et al. We also calculated the average dive depth from the maximum depth of each dive. Dive type was determined based on the pattern of the depth profile during the bottom phase of a dive Prey capture rate was determined by counting capture events on the video-recordings in slow motion during times when the penguins were hunting krill 34 , To determine how many types of calls are in the offshore call repertoire, we verified the normality of the CD and DF values of the calls by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.
Differences in dive duration, maximum dive depth, average dive depth, dive type and prey capture rate between before and after vocal behaviour were tested using a paired t test.
For the paired t tests, we pooled dive data from calling individuals. We tested randomness of seven non-calling individuals by modelling the call frequency number of calls per hour per individual from other 10 calling penguins as a Poisson distribution. By rejecting the null hypothesis that non-calling individuals were at random, we included the individuals with absence of calling.
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Kroodsma, D. Favaro, L. The vocal repertoire of the African Penguin Spheniscus demersus : structure and function of calls. PLoS One 9 , e Krama, T. Cost of mobbing call to breeding pied flycatcher. Ficedula hypoleuca. Individuals in foraging groups may use vocal cues when assessing their need for anti-predator vigilance.
Close calling regulates spacing between foraging competitors in the group-living pied babbler. Cooperative sentinel calling? Foragers gain increased biomass intake. Davis, L. A place to breed in The penguins ed. Sladen, W.
The Pygoscelid penguins: I. Methods of study. Google Scholar. Lengagne, T. How do King penguins Aptenodytes patagonicus apply the mathematical theory of information to communicate in windy conditions. Proc Biol Sci. Jouventin, P. Finding a parent in a King penguin colony: the acoustic system of individual recognition.
Acoustic systems are adapted to breeding ecologies: individual recognition in nesting penguins. Ainley, D. Ainley D. Copeland, K. Concerted small-group foraging behavior in Gentoo Penguins. Pygoscelis Papua. Sutton, G. Benefits of group foraging depend on prey type in a small marine predator, the Little penguin. PLoS One 10 , e Takahashi, A.
Penguin-mounted cameras glimpse underwater group behavior. Wilson, R. Group size in foraging African penguins Spheniscus demersus. Tremblay, Y. Synchronous underwater foraging behavior in penguins. Hamilton, W. Geometry for selfish herd. Ronaldo, A. Vigilance and neighbor distance in foraging flocks of red-billed choughs, Phrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. Beauchamp, G. Patch exploitation in a producer-scrounger system: test of a hypothesis using flocks of spice finches Lonchura punctulata.
Kerth, G. Fauchald, P. Spatial interaction between seabirds and prey: review and synthesis. Bailey, I. Group hunting within the Carnivora: physiological, cognitive and environmental influences on strategy and cooperation.
Kokubun, N. Penguin head movement detected using small accelerometers: a proxy of prey encounter rate. Watanabe, Y. Linking animal-borne video to accelerometers reveals prey capture variability. PNAS , — Ponganis, P. Sub-ice foraging behavior of Emperor penguins. Thiebault, A. Seabird acoustic communication at sea: a new perspective using bio-logging devices.
Robinson, S. Foraging ecology of gentoo penguins Pygoscelis papua at Macquarie Island during the period of chick care. Ibis , — Comparison of diving behavior and foraging habitat use between chinstrap and gentoo penguins breeding in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Lee, W. Rogers, T. Our favorite sea animals have an arsenal of tricks for wooing a mate. Find out what they are just in time for Valentine's Day! From giving each other rocks and not the sparkly kind to singing heartfelt songs, these animals prove that there are lots of ways to go courting.
But for Adelie and Gentoo penguins, they also need the perfect pebble to seal the deal. These penguins live on rocky shores and prize these small stones to build their nests during mating season. During courtship, a male penguin will find the smoothest pebble to give to a female as a gift.
Instead, they will steal the best-looking pebbles from another penguin and pawn them off as their own. For some species of whale, songs are their romantic gesture of choice. Whales rely heavily on sound to communicate in the water. And when mating season rolls around, male humpback whales will belt out amorous tunes to woo a female.
Some research even suggests that males will start to weave complex syntax into songs to convey more information to a potential mate. But, there are always other males ready to imitate successful song styles to win over their own crushes. Sea otters lie on their backs when they're in need of a deep doze, but their prone position also creates the perfect excuse to hold paws with their significant otter. The short calls heard before the penguin dives under the water resemble some of the contact calls used by African penguins.
Researchers believe the calls are used to assemble these groups by attracting other penguins. Even more remarkable, nearly half of the gatherings occurred within a minute after the call was made. Penguins that made the calls spent less time underwater, perhaps because the vocalizations require energy.
Read about what happened when a male penguin found his mate with another male. The study's authors hypothesized that gentoo penguins likely form groups to improve their chances at catching food in some way, which is not yet understood.
It's also unclear what the calls' exact functions are. An eight-hour time recording limit on the camera and limited visibility in the water made assessing interactions difficult. However, the team hopes to investigate further by placing cameras on multiple penguins in the same group.
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